���˿���

Ethics are moral principles, or rules, that govern a person's attitudes and behaviour.

Ethics apply to the use of computers as much as they do to other things in life. Ethical issues in computing include issues of privacy and cybersecurity.

Privacy

Once data is put into a computer it can easily be copied or transmitted. This puts personal private data at risk. Organisations that hold private data should do their best to ensure that such data remains private. The Data Protection Act 1998/2018 exists to ensure that organisations in the UK comply with the law regarding data privacy.

Many smartphone apps ask for permission to access data held on the device. Once accessed, this data is usually sent to the app producer, who is often in another country and not always subject to the privacy laws that exist in the UK.

In 2016, the government introduced the Investigatory Powers Act. This sets out rules on the use of investigatory powers by law enforcement and the security and intelligence agencies. Under the act, phone companies and internet service providers are required to keep copies of users' emails and browsing histories for a period of time. It also gives the police and security services the authority to access computers and phones to search for data. This act has proved controversial, with opponents concerned over how it impacts people's right to privacy.

Ensuring public safety

Ensuring public safety is paramount. As new technologies are introduced, they bring safety concerns.

For example, driverless cars may soon be on the roads in the UK. The designers of driverless cars have not only had to ensure the safety of passengers but also of other drivers and pedestrians. An ethical issue applies here, as a situation may occur where the car's software has to decide who has safety priority. Should it be the passengers inside the car, or other road users?

Digital divide

The digital divide is the difference between those who have access to computers and the internet and those who do not. This may be due to wealth, location, age or the ability to use new technology.

Somebody who has a visual impairment may have difficulties using a touchscreen. Apps that are designed to be used on a smartphone may exclude such people from using their services.

The elderly generation have not grown up with technology and might feel nervous of the steep learning curve required to gain confidence with using the internet. This could mean that they miss out on opportunities, such as online shopping offers that are not available on the high street.

Working conditions

Modern technology has revolutionised many organisations. The benefits include quick access to data, cheap data storage, automatic generation of letters and invoices, and easy tracking of accounts. However, there are also some disadvantages of modern technology:

• people can now be contacted through smartphones no matter where they are, making it difficult to have time when they are not on call
• medical issues such as RSI (repetitive strain injury) or eye strain can occur when an employee is stationary at a desk for long periods of time
• there is concern that new technology, for example robots, might take jobs away from humans

Professional standards

Working professionally in the computer science and information technology industry often requires that people:

• have knowledge and experience in the industry, probably with formal qualifications
• continually develop their skills and knowledge
• have a wide range of industry skills
• follow ‘best practice’ in their job

There is an expectation of how the people working within an organisation should act. There are both formal and informal codes of conduct they are expected to be aware of.

Formal codes of conduct

These are codes of conduct as outlined and enforced by the organisation in their policies, which all personnel within the organisation have to agree to abide by. These policies are written down and signed, and include:

• acceptable use policy
• internet access policy

Acceptable use policy

Employees within an organisation may have access to sensitive data about their customers and clients. If so, they must treat this data with respect and in accordance with the law. An acceptable use policy sets out what is and is not acceptable and clearly explains the use of electronic devices to establish ethical and lawful behaviour.

For instance, it may specify:

• employees are not allowed to copy personal information from clients onto a removable storage media device and take it out of the office
• data needs to be encrypted before it is sent via email
• paper copies of sensitive data must be destroyed once it is no longer needed

Internet access policy

An internet access policy provides employees with rules and guidelines about the appropriate use of the internet while in the workplace. It may specify:

• employees are expected to use the internet responsibly and productively
• internet access is limited to job-related activities only and personal use is not permitted
• the organisation reserves the right to monitor internet traffic and monitor and access data that is composed, sent or received through its online connections
• emails sent via the company email system should not contain content that is classed as offensive or includes vulgar language and images or can be interpreted as bullying to another party

Informal codes of conduct

An informal code is not laid out in a formal policy but people within an organisation will still be expected to behave in an appropriate manner. For example, if all staff log off their computers and lock doors behind them, then other staff will usually follow their lead. Even though a written rule may not be in place, informally this becomes an expectation in the workplace. Informal codes might also include unwritten customs and habits in organisations, and demonstrate personal integrity by exhibiting honesty and truthfulness.

Cybersecurity

There is a growing need for cybersecurity in light of the increasing frequency of attacks to computerised systems. Not all hacking is bad. It can be split into three categories:

• Black hat hacking - these hackers wish to cause damage or gain access to a computer system for criminal activities. They are performing this action illegally and without the consent of the organisation who own the computer system they are attempting to gain access to.
• White hat hacking - these hackers want to use their skills for good. They attempt to gain access, finding weaknesses in the system so that potential future attacks can be prevented. White hat hackers have full permission to attempt access to the system and are paid by the organisation to perform this service. White hat hacking is completely legal.
• Grey hat hacking - these hackers attempt to illegally gain access to a computer without the consent of the owner(s). Once a fault is found, they will report it to the organisation in exchange for a fee. If the organisation does not pay the fee, the hacker will post the weakness on the internet for other hackers to exploit.

You can read more about hacking and cybersecurity in the Internet and cybersecurity revision guide.